Cultivating Inclusive Growth through South Africa’s Horticulture Sector

1. Challenges with Inclusive Growth in South Africa
   South Africa faces interlinked challenges of high poverty, high inequality, and high unemployment^[1]. The nation’s pursuit of inclusive growth has also been a complex journey. Its economic transition towards services, without significant manufacturing growth, mirrors trends observed in other African countries. However, unlike other African nations, where this shift has primarily been towards low-productivity services in the informal sector, South Africa has leaned towards high productivity and high-skilled sectors like financial and community services^[2]. What’s also unique is that its informal sector, including agriculture, which often serves as a refuge for those excluded from the formal sector, is relatively smaller than other countries at similar levels of development.^[3] As a result, the limited growth of the informal sector has further contributed to South Africa’s high unemployment rate.

South Africa’s structural transformation has not resulted in sufficient job creation needed to combat unemployment and inequality, with unemployment standing at nearly 33%. Youth unemployment is particularly severe, exceeding 50%. Unemployment rates are also highest among individuals who have not completed secondary education, followed closely by those with secondary schooling. And while employment rates do not vary significantly by race when controlling for education, there are substantial differences in education levels among population groups. For instance, over 50% of Black South Africans have not completed secondary education. (Figure 1)^[4].

Figure 1: Education attainment by race, 2021

Source: Quarterly Labor Force Survey, 2021 – Q4.

Addressing South Africa’s unemployment crisis requires not only creating more jobs but also creating the right jobs, particularly for Black South Africans with lower levels of education.^[5] Sectors like horticulture exhibit characteristics that overlap with manufacturing in terms of policy requirements for fostering growth. Like manufacturing, the horticulture sector is tradable, has high value added per worker, and benefits from scale and agglomeration economies.^[6] Therefore, South Africa’s horticulture sector can play a vital role in its structural transformation, akin to the traditional role of manufacturing.

1. Horticulture as a Channel for Inclusive Growth
   South Africa’s agriculture sector contributes to about 3% of its GDP^[7], with horticulture (comprising the production of fruits, nuts, and vegetables) accounting for 30% of agricultural output. The sector is highly export-oriented and has experienced significant growth in export value, primarily driven by fruits (Figure 2)^[8].

Figure 2: Fruit and vegetable export value (USD millions), 2002-2021

Source: FAOSTAT

Estimates indicate that horticulture accounts for over 30% of total employment in South Africa’s agriculture sector and 2% of overall employment. The industry exhibits a significant multiplier effect within the agriculture sector through backward and forward linkages, creating over 400,000 employment opportunities across broader agricultural value chains^[9]. The sector also predominantly employees low-skilled workers with less than secondary education (Figure 3)^[10].

Figure 3: Share of employment by skill-level by sector

Source: Post Apartheid Labor Market Series

A typical horticulture value chain offers not only low-skill job opportunities in most segments but also occupations requiring medium to high skills (Figure 4). This indicates that, while the sector can provide various employment opportunities for young, low-skilled workers, it also offers a pathway for progression to higher-skill jobs as workers gain experience. This is an important factor in incentivizing employers to retain employees^[11].

Figure 4: Typical horticulture value chain and opportunities by skill-level

Source: Africa Growth Initiative, Brookings

Research indicates that the horticulture sector has the potential to create between 100,000-175,000 additional jobs in South Africa over the next 5 years^[12].  According to projections by Allen et al. (2021), if employment in the horticulture sector grows beyond its current rate of 1.4% to between 3.0 – 4.0%, it has the potential to generate 100,000 additional jobs by 2028.^[13] Furthermore, Sturzenegger et.al (2023) have found that the output from horticulture is underreported by an estimated 74 billion rand (1.7% of GDP), and the sector is performing below its potential by approximately 50 billion rand (0.5% of GDP). These findings suggest that achieving its full potential could add about 175,000 jobs to the economy^[14].

Within horticulture, the fruits sector has already demonstrated strong growth, primarily driven by the citrus industry. As of 2021, South Africa was the second largest global exporter of citrus fruits, holding 11.5% of the export market share^[15]. Employment in the citrus sector grew by more than 50% from 2009 to 2019, standing at 112,000 workers. Estimates further suggest that the linkage of citrus fruits with processed products has led to the value chain employing almost 250,000 jobs in 2020^[16]. However, growth in the citrus sector stands in contrast to other fruits, where progress has been limited due to various barriers.

III. Barriers to Leveraging Horticulture for Inclusive Growth

The horticulture sector faces a number of supply and demand side constraints that inhibits it from creating jobs and contributing to inclusive growth (Figure 5).

Figure 5: Supply and demand side constraints to inclusive growth in horticulture

Source: Author

1. Value chains are dominated by large scale commercial farmers and processors: The persistent challenge is that value chains are dominated by well-established and well-connected large-scale commercial farmers, leaving little room for new entrant small-scale farmers who can contribute to inclusive growth. Evidence from the from the National Agricultural Marketing Council has indicated that black farmers contribute to only 5-10% of total production^[17]. Additionally, in processing, the five largest fruit processing firms account for ~50% of total revenue in the industry ^[18].
   The concentration of value chains by large scale farmers and processors in South Africa is due to the nature of capabilities needed in the sector, including:
   • Vertical coordination: Developing horticulture value chains requires maintaining post-harvest quality from farmer to consumer, including proper storage, packaging, and efficient logistics. Large-scale investments in post-harvest infrastructure, such as storage and packaging facilities, are increasingly driven by partnerships between governments and private companies, often in the form of vertically integrated supply chains with multinational supermarkets^[19].
   • Compliance with sanitary and phytosanitary standards: Growing concerns over food safety have led to industry-wide standards set by supermarket chains. As a result, producing fresh fruit for export requires meeting both retailer standards and international sanitary and phytosanitary regulations. These requirements pose a major barrier for smaller producers, who often lack the investment and expertise to meet the quality standards demanded by multinational supermarkets^[20].

• Access to finance: Small-scale producers and processors often face capital constraints due to limited collateral and the perception of high risk by formal lending institutions, given the impact of variable factors (like climatic conditions) on revenues and profitability.^[21]. Additionally, the Land and Development Bank of South Africa, intended to support both large-scale and new entrant farmers, has been riddled by poor governance, undermining its role as a development finance institution.^[22].
• The production of high-value horticulture crops requires strong R&D investments: R&D is required to develop better post-harvest systems, improved varieties of high-value crops, and local species that can generate new sources of income. Cutting edge R&D is also critical for the export market orientation of horticulture produce. However, across developing countries, R&D investments on horticultural crops have been drastically underfunded^[23], and in South Africa, the government funded Agriculture Research Council’s spending on horticultural crops has been stagnant from 2000 – 2015. South Africa also stands well below its BRICS partners in terms of spending on agricultural R&D in absolute terms^[24].

Thus, market concentration across the horticulture value chain has been driven by the nature of capabilities needed in the sector, including vertical coordination, compliance with sanitary and phytosanitary standards, access to finance, as well as R&D investments.    

2. Public goods are a constraint across the value chain: The poor state of public goods critical to the South African economy has gained global attention. Evidence has pointed to electricity being the most binding constraint for the economy, with its failure contributing to the economic slowdown, particularly in manufacturing. However, other sectors reliant on ports, rail, and water infrastructure also face significant risks. The Port of Durban has witnessed a collapse, evident in ship congestion, while rail inefficiencies are highlighted by the complete shutdown of passenger services. Water supply is also deteriorating because of administrative failures^[25]. In the case of horticultural value chains, on the production side, many farmers and processors lack electricity and water infrastructure. On the distribution side, poor road infrastructure in rural areas hampers the timely delivery of produce to wholesalers. Additionally, weak road, rail, and port infrastructure restrict access to both domestic retail and export markets. ^[26]

3. The agriculture sector is highly dualistic, and land reform efforts have been slow and inefficient: Land remains underutilized and characterized by dualism, with highly productive commercial farms existing alongside low-productivity, communally administered agricultural land. While land reforms have been carried out— with the government repurchasing 2.5 million hectares from white farmers and redistributing about 17% back to black-owned farms, arguments have made for further distribution. However, uncertainties on the land reform process have increased perceived risks for agricultural investments and slowed innovation in the sector^[27].

4. On the demand side, market integration and access remain a challenge: Integrating smallholder farmers into markets is challenging due to the factors discussed above. Smallholders are limited in their ability to adapt to changing consumer demands and preferences because of R&D limitations. Additionally, the lack of technical expertise to meet sanitary and phytosanitary standards set by export markets further marginalizes them. Even when farmers meet these standards and produce high-quality goods, they are still hindered by the poor state of public infrastructure, particularly roads and ports. The dysfunctionality of port infrastructure results in produce being delayed for weeks, severely diminishing quality by the time it reaches export markets.
5. Overcoming Constraints in the Horticulture Sector

IV.I. Case Study of the Citrus Growers Association

South Africa’s citrus industry is notable both domestically and globally for its export-driven growth and impact on job creation. The exceptional performance of the industry, especially compared to other fruits, can attributed to the role of the Citrus Growers Association (CGA) which has been instrumental in leading long-term strategies for export success. The CGA represents citrus growers and is funded from a mandatory levy imposed on all citrus exports. Its primary functions include facilitating market access, undertaking research and development, and working closely with the government on regulatory matters^[28]. The key mechanisms through which the CGA has been instrumental to the success of the citrus industry are detailed below:

• The CGA creates competitive rivalry throughout the citrus value chain: Cultivars, crop protection compound providers, and input suppliers play a crucial role in the citrus value chain. However, these players are highly concentrated and impose costs on growers. In response, the CGA established the CGA Cultivar Company (CGACC) to introduce competition to the main private cultivars, as well as River Bioscience to develop competing products to those of major plant protection companies. The CGA also works to ensure that cold chain and logistics operations are not exclusively controlled by marketing companies.
• The CGA conducts its own R&D and upskilling: Market access requires strong R&D capabilities to ensure that produce complies with food safety and phytosanitary requirements in different markets. Through Citrus Research International, the CGA focuses on industry research, strengthening its ability to respond effectively to changing consumer preferences and expanding international standards. The CGA also established the Citrus Academy, which focuses on developing skills and capabilities for growers.
• The CGA centralizes compliance: Export markets require strict adherence to safety and phytosanitary standards. To ensure growers meet these requirements, the CGA has established a centralized system for plant material procurement. Compliance costs are disproportionately high for smaller farmers due to fixed costs, so the CGA’s role in supporting compliance is especially important from an inclusion perspective.
• The CGA works with the government and National Agricultural Marketing Council (NAMC) to ensure export market access: The industry relies on the government to gain market access and maintain standards. While the government and NAMC are responsible for signing trade agreements, the CGA plays an important role in representing local producers during negotiations. It also has the technical expertise to provide feedback on issues like pests and diseases^[29].

Since the speed of implementing land reforms has been exceptionally slow in South Africa, the CGA worked around the process and established the Citrus Growers’ Development Company (CGDC). The CGDC provides financial, training, and technical support to marginalized Black farmers. 20% of the CGA’s export levies, along with government funding, are allocated to the CGDC. As a result, with the growth of citrus levies, support for Black farmers doubled in 2021. Thus, the export-led growth of the citrus industry has fuelled inclusivity efforts.^[30].

The CGA’s role in the citrus industry’s success, compared to other fruits, highlights the constraints that were barriers to the sector’s growth. The CGA addressed issues of market concentration by creating competitive rivalry throughout the citrus value chain, centralizing complex compliance requirements, and undertaking its own R&D. It also circumvented inefficiencies in land reform implementation by creating its own structures to include Black farmers. Finally, the CGA’s efforts in R&D, compliance, logistics, and trade negotiations have enabled it to successfully address issues of market access.

IV.II. Case Study of Urban Grown

Urban Grown is an emerging SME dedicated to supplying high-quality fruits and vegetables in the urban localities of Gauteng, with a strong emphasis on empowering young farmers from townships. Over the past seven years, founders Simba and Nonhlanhla have successfully expanded their venture, securing supplier agreements with notable hospitality groups and leading retail chains. Their journey highlights the essential skills and strategies required for SMEs to succeed in the horticulture industry:

• Urban Grown expanded volumes through high-yield products and strategic sourcing: Recognizing the need for large volumes to attract buyers, Urban Grown initially focused on hydroponics and high-yield products. Additionally, it now sources approximately 40% of its produce from other small-scale farmers committed to sustainability.
• It entered into value-added activities through the technical support of an incubation hub: By leveraging the Riversands Incubation Hub’s advisory services, workshops, and affordable utility spaces, Urban Grown ventured into value-added activities such as processing and packaging, enhancing its growth potential.
• It gained market access through a strong value proposition and marketing efforts: The company’s commitment to sustainable farming and food safety garnered interest from major retailers, including Pick n Pay, Shoprite, and Spar. This success is attributed to the founders’ sales and marketing expertise
• The organization secured funding by tapping into supplier development initiatives: Faced with initial funding constraints due to a lack of collateral, the founders relied on personal funds to acquire land and set up operations. Subsequently, achieving critical business turnover enabled the organization to secure a loan from a hospitality chain client through its supplier development initiative, which offered collateral-free funding in exchange for preferential produce supply rates. This financial boost supported production expansion, cold chain logistics investment, and workforce growth.
• Urban Grown also leveraged supper development initiatives to upskill its workforce: To prepare its unskilled and semi-skilled workforce to meet various domestic and international food safety standards, it was critical for Urban Grown to invest in skilling efforts. Upskilling programs were developed and implemented in conjunction with the organization’s retail chain clients, who had allocated funds for workforce development under the Black Economic Empowerment policy^[31].

Thus, Urban Grown was able to address constraints in expanding volumes, gaining access to retail markets, securing funding, and adhering to food safety standards. A crucial factor in the organization’s ability to overcome these challenges was the expertise of its founders and their ability to cultivate strategic relationships with their clients. 

1. Policy Recommendations

Industry bodies like the Citrus Growers Association and SMEs like Urban Grown have undertaken targeted efforts to address the various supply and demand side constraints in the horticulture sector. These cases have highlighted the role of both, broader industrial capabilities as well direct support to small-holder farmers and processers in unlocking inclusive growth. However, for the horticulture sector to achieve its potential, there is a need for stronger institutional support for producers and growers’ associations, as well as coordination between the government, supermarket chains, research and training institutions, and private sector investors.

Figure 6: Policy options and constraints they seek to address

Source: Author

Providing technical assistance for compliance with sanitary and phytosanitary standards: The rise of domestic and international supermarket chains has led to the establishment of costly sanitary and phytosanitary standards for horticulture produce. Compliance with these standards has also led to the demand for a more skilled horticulture workforce. Currently, limitations in workforce capacity serves as a major constraint from an inclusion standpoint.

In South Africa, the Agricultural Sectoral Education and Training Authority (AgriSETA) coordinates horticulture sector training and is funded by levies from employers. However, the complex process of completing the required documents to access its services has deterred smaller employers from contributing^[32]. As a result, AgriSETA’s limited access to funding has hindered skills development^[33]. Additionally, the number of qualified accredited training service providers is limited and not distributed evenly across the country. In order to bypass this constraint, it would be critical for workplaces to implement in-house training initiatives. Growers’ associations play an important role in implementing this, as they would need to create learning materials that reflect the best production techniques and latest research insights. Thus, allocation of state funding to support SETAs and growers’ associations is critical^[34].

Strengthening government support for supplier development programs: Given that supermarkets are a key route to market, focused supplier development programs (SPDs) can play an important role in the inclusion of smaller growers and processers. Through SPDs, supermarkets can help smaller suppliers upgrade their capabilities to meet requirements and gain access to shelf space. This support includes technical assistance for compliance, access to infrastructure (e.g., irrigation, packaging, distribution), and business development and marketing advisory^[35].

Supermarket chains in South Africa already engage in SPDs. When these were first implemented in the mid-2000s, many of these primarily aimed at meeting BEE compliance or fulfilling CSR objectives. As a result, these programs typically provided support for a relatively short duration of 3-5 years, with limited effectiveness, as there was little incentive for supermarkets to make longer-term investments in developing small scale suppliers. Nevertheless, a positive shift occurred post 2018, with some supermarkets viewing SDPs as part of a long-term commercial strategy, going beyond just BEE compliance^[36]. 

Despite progress, there is still potential to expand and improve SPDs, particularly with stronger government support. The Industrial Development Corporation helps integrate small-scale farmers into supermarkets by pairing them with large commercial farmers to facilitate knowledge transfer and infrastructure sharing. However, the funding for these programs has been very limited, and access has been administratively challenging for smaller suppliers. Additionally, direct partnerships between governments and supermarkets have been limited and riddled with coordination failures. When supermarkets design SPDs in isolation, they overlook key issues related to land ownership and access to finance. Thus, there is a need for closer partnerships to align existing institutional funding with SPD programs^[37].

Channelling higher funding for R&D: As seen in the citrus industry, the ability to conduct cutting-edge research to meet changing consumer demands, food safety, and export standards depends on the strength of growers’ associations. The CGA allocates almost 50% of its statutory levies to research and, unlike other fruit industries, does not rely on the state-funded Agricultural Research Council (ARC) for its research needs.^[38].

The ARC’s spending on horticultural crops has been stagnant from 2000 to 2015, and it has experienced a decline in parliamentary grant funding, limiting its ability to invest in critical infrastructure and workforce capabilities. This has created a vicious cycle, where poor infrastructure and capabilities lead to further declines in statutory levies from growers’ associations. Due to the long-term nature of agricultural research, the reduced public funding for R&D will have lasting consequences on the horticulture sector^[39]. Thus, state funding for R&D is critical to fostering growth in the sector.

Addressing deficiencies in South Africa’s Land and Development Bank: Access to finance continues to be a constraint for inclusive growth in the horticulture sector. While South Africa’s Land and Development Bank was established as a development finance institute, offering loans below market rates, it no longer serves its original purpose. This has compromised the success of land reform beneficiaries and black commercial farmers.

Initially, Land Bank offered affordable loans for farming. However, in 1999, government funding for the bank ceased, forcing it to borrow from capital markets. As of 2010, the bank’s primary source of funds has been the money market. There was also a push from the bank’s leadership to become more commercially focused and compete with commercial banks, further marginalizing access to emerging farmers. As such, all of the land bank’s rates are linked to the commercial prime lending rate. The bank also started lending to non-agricultural activities^[40].

Thus, the shift towards commercial operations and reliance on costly short-term market funds has distanced the bank from its developmental mandate. Rectifying this involves strategic financial restructuring to lower borrowing costs below key rates, diversifying funding to include government support and private sector partnerships, and focusing lending on critical areas of land purchases and production credit. Such steps are critical for the Land Bank to reclaim its role in facilitating agricultural growth and land reform^[41].

Channeling private investments in network industries There has been a widespread failure of state capacity in the provision of electricity, water, rail, road, and port infrastructure. South Africa is at a juncture where technical reforms that leverage greater private participation and investment in network industries are critical. A well-functioning electricity sector requires an expansion in generation, transmission, and storage capacities. The rail sector needs private sector investment and involvement in maintenance, operation, and security to overcome its current challenges. Similarly, port infrastructure is also in need of private investment, especially in services prone to backlogs^[42].

 

In conclusion, South Africa’s horticulture sector has significant potential to grow and contribute to job creation and inclusive development. However, several key barriers —such as market concentration, inadequate public infrastructure, and limited market access—must be addressed to realize this potential.

 

Prepared by:
Varsha Hari Prasad
Master in Public Administration in International Development, Class of 2024, Harvard Kennedy School

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1. References

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Barrientos, S., Visser, M. (2012). South African horticulture: opportunities and challenges for economic and social upgrading in value chains. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2209718

Bell, J., Goga, S., Mondliwa, P., Roberts, S. (2018). Structural transformation in South Africa: Moving towards a smart open economy for all. Centre for Competition Regulation and Economic Development, University of Johannesburg. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3269732

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Shah, K. (2022). Diagnosing South Africa’s High Unemployment and Low Informality. Center for International Development, Harvard University. https://growthlab.hks.harvard.edu/sites/projects.iq.harvard.edu/files/growthlab/files/2022-09-cid-fellows-wp-138-south-africa-labor-markets.pdf

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Uys, G. (2016). Growing South Africa’s global fruit exports. Farmer’s Weekly.  https://www.farmersweekly.co.za/opinion/by-invitation/growing-south-africas-global-fruit-exports/#:~:text=New%20and%20niche%20products%20such,5%20billion%20(R36%20billion).

 

[1] Shah (2022)

[2] Allen et.al (2021)

[3] Shah (2022)

[4] Shah (2022)

[5] Allen et.al (2021)

[6] Allen et.al (2021)

[7] Esterhuizen (2023)

[8] Barrientos and Visser (2012)

[9] Uys (2016)

[10] Allen et.al (2021)

[11] Allen et.al (2021)

[12] Trading Economics (2023)

[13] Allen et.al (2021)

[14] Sturzenegger et.al (2023)

[15] Atlas of Economic Complexity Data

[16] Chisoro and Roberts (2021)

[17] Sihlobo (2021)

[18] Chitonge (2021)

[19] Hewett (2012)

[20] Bell et.al (2018)

[21] Allen et.al (2021)

[22] Sihlobo and Kirsten (2023)

[23] Hewett (2012)

[24] Chaminuka et. al (2019)

[25] Hausmann et. al (2023)

[26] Allen et.al (2021)

[27] Sturzenegger et.al (2023)

[28] Chisoro and Roberts (2023)

[29] Chisoro and Roberts (2023)

[30] Chisoro and Roberts (2023)

[31] Interview with Simba Chimhandamba, Urban Grown (2024)

[32] Barrientos and Visser (2012)

[33] AgriSETA (2021)

[34] AgriSETA (2021)

[35] Nair and Landani (2021)

[36] Nair and Landani (2021)

[37] Nair and Landani (2021)

[38] Chisoro and Roberts (2023)

[39] Chaminuka et. al (2019)

[40] Sihlobo and Kirsten (2023)

[41] Sihlobo and Kirsten (2023)

[42] Hausmann et. al (2023)